Table 2 Known potential causes of CKD in LMICs
From: Urbanization and kidney function decline in low and middle income countries
| Risk factors |
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I. Lifestyle a. Sedentary lifestyle b. Increased caloric intake c. High intake of calorie-rich foods, sodas, red meat and decreased intake of fruits and vegetables d. High sodium intake e. Lack of sleep |
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II. Non-Communicable Diseases a. Obesity b. Diabetes, Type II c. Hypertension d. Poor management of diabetes and hypertension (poor medication adherence) |
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III. Environmental Factors a. Food insecurity and poverty b. Air/water pollution and industrial waste products c. Heavy metals (lead, Cadmium, arsenic, gold, mercury and uranium) d. Plastics and resins (Bisphenols) e. Over-the-counter drug and Counterfeit drugs f. Pesticides, hardness of water, g. Superphosphates, h. Arsenic-contaminated fertilizers and cyanogens from algae |
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IV. Infections a. Tuberculosis b. Hepatitis B and C c. Malaria and other viral vector borne diseases (dengue and yellow fever) d. Parasitic diseases including schistosomiasis, filariasis, and leishmaniasis |