Table 2 Known potential causes of CKD in LMICs
From: Urbanization and kidney function decline in low and middle income countries
Risk factors |
I. Lifestyle  a. Sedentary lifestyle  b. Increased caloric intake  c. High intake of calorie-rich foods, sodas, red meat and decreased intake of fruits and vegetables  d. High sodium intake  e. Lack of sleep |
II. Non-Communicable Diseases  a. Obesity  b. Diabetes, Type II  c. Hypertension  d. Poor management of diabetes and hypertension (poor medication adherence) |
III. Environmental Factors  a. Food insecurity and poverty  b. Air/water pollution and industrial waste products  c. Heavy metals (lead, Cadmium, arsenic, gold, mercury and uranium)  d. Plastics and resins (Bisphenols) e. Over-the-counter drug and Counterfeit drugs  f. Pesticides, hardness of water,  g. Superphosphates,  h. Arsenic-contaminated fertilizers and cyanogens from algae |
IV. Infections  a. Tuberculosis  b. Hepatitis B and C  c. Malaria and other viral vector borne diseases (dengue and yellow fever)  d. Parasitic diseases including schistosomiasis, filariasis, and leishmaniasis |