Table 2 List of Clinical studies and Analyzed Case Series of Synthetic Cannabinoids, Bath Salts, Heroin, Amphetamines, Cocaine, Cocaine and Levamisole, CPD Opioids

Reiderer et al., CDC, 2016 [138] n = 456

Cross Sectional

Cases involving Synthetic Cannabinoid Use = 456

Sole agent =277; SCB as agent in multi-agent = 179;

AKI in Sole agent SCB = 4.0%;

Rhabdomyolysis in Sole agent SCB = 6.1%

N/A

Connolly et al.,

2006 [36] n = 20

Cross Sectional

Amyloidosis = 100%

Nephrotic Syndrome = 95%

ESRD = 60%

Cr mean = 6.4 ± 4.2 mg/dl

Proteinuria mean = 7.3 ± 4.1 g/24 h

CRP** mean (μmol/l) = 61.4 ± 64

Garg et al., 2011 [41], n = 367

Prospective Cohort Study⁺

Heroin use- HR 1.18 (0.75, 1.87) p = 0.43*

Model 2- Heroin −1.62 (1.01, 2.60) p = 0.045**

Model 4- Heroin- 1.28 (1.07, 2.87) p = 0.352**

Model 5- Heroin- 0.97 (0.53, 3.71) p = 0.910**

216 HIV+ HCV Confection cases

151 HCV Monoinfection cases

Kosmadakis et al., 2011 [139] n = 21

Case Control

Case =11,

Control = 10

Heroin Users (HU) with Rhabdomyolysis = 11

Non-Heroin Users(NHU) with Rhabdomyolysis =10

Rhabdomyolysis Severity HU > NHU

HU v/s NHU CPK^# = p 0.039

HU v/s NHU LDH^Z = p 0.031

HU v/s NHU PO4 = p 0.002

Novick et al.,

2016 [42] n = 2286

Cohort Study

Opiate users = 15%, Cocaine users = 22%

Odds of albuminuria:

Opiates: OR 1.20, 95% CI 0.83–1.73

Cocaine: OR 1.80, 95% CI 1.29–2.51

Odds of reduced eGFR:

Opiates: OR 2.71, 95% CI 1.50–4.89

Cocaine: 1.40, 95% CI 0.87–2.24

Briggs, 2013 [49] n = 33

Case Control

Case-15

Control-18

4/8 TTP without infection patients in the case group had renal failure and 7/7 TTP infection patients in the case group had renal failure.

(Odds ratio = 35.0; 95% confidence interval = 3.9–312.1) between TTP-like illness and injection of reformulated Opana ER

Aghabiklooei et al., 2014 [140]

n = 322

Cross Sectional

Acute methadone toxicity – Total n = 322, Survivors n-294, Non survivors n- 28

Acute Renal failure: total 16 (4.9%), Survivors 3 (1%), Non Survivors 13 (46.4%) p < 0.001

Rhabdomyolysis: Total 15 (4.6%), Survivors 7 (2.4%), Non-Survivors 8 (28.6%)

Glanzmann et al., 2015 [47]

n = 200

Case Control

Case = 100

Control =100

AKI with morphine – OR- 2.4 (1.02, 6.03) p = 0.042

AKI with opioids drug group- OR 3.2 (1.35, 7.75) p = 0.008

Age and sex was matched in cases and controls

Buettner et al.

2014 [55]

Case Series

(autopsy)

75/129 cocaine positive subjects

Signs of glomerular ischemia with cocaine = OR 3.08 (1.35–7.01) p = 0.007 *; OR = 3.34 (1.37–8.14) p = 0.01**.

Arteriosclerosis with cocaine = OR 2.35 (1.08–5.11) p = 0.02*; OR 3.88 (1.49–9.92) p = 0.005**

HTN-Ischemic Nephropathy with cocaine = OR 5.42 (1.17–25.20) p = 0.02*, OR = 6.0 (1.27–28.44) p = 0.02**

McGrath et al.

2012 [141]

Cross sectional

30/327 New ANCA patients

100% had antimyeloperoxidase antibodies and 50% antiproteinase 3 antibodies, 2 cases had acute renal failure.

N/A

Liechti et al., 2005 [142] n = 52

Case Series

90.4% used drugs in combination with Ecstasy

3 patients had rhabdomyolysis and 1 patient had acute renal failure

N/A

CDC 2010 [83]

Case Series

One patient had renal failure, rhabdomyolysis and seizures who was admitted to the ICU and required hemodialysis.

N/A

Jones et al., 2015 [143]

Cross Sectional

Methamphetamine User: N = 47, Malignant Hypertension present in 89.45 (n = 42), CKD was present in 95.7% (N = 45) (55.3% had stage 5 CKD, 8.4% had stage 4 CKD, 10.6% had stage 2 CKD and 12.8% had stage 1 CKD)

Biopsy Findings- Biopsy was performed on 24 patients, Hypertensive changes were present in 50% (N = 12) (with N = 6 had malignant changes), 25% (N = 6) had ESRD, MPGN Type 1 with IgM-C3 deposits was found in 58.3% (N = 14), 37.5% (N = 9) had IgG deposits and 29% (N = 7) had IgA deposits.

Nicol et al. 2015 [87]

Case Series

All subjects’ death. 17/27 died after arrival to hospital.

85% AKI

54% Rhabdomyolysis

Median Peak Cr was 2.4 (1.7–12.8) mg/dl; Median Peak CK was 8200 (1952–237,960) U/L