Table 1 Baseline socio-demographic, clinical and laboratory characteristics of studyparticipants

Female gender

216 (42.1)

41 (49.4)

175 (40.7)

1.42 [0.89–2.28]

0.14

Age in months

42 [28–72]

34 [27–60]

46.5 [29–72]

0.99 [0.99–1.00]

0.10

 Bugando Medical Centre

369 (71.9)

65 (78.3)

304 (70.7)

RG0.67

RG

 Sekou Toure Hospital

144 (28.1)

18 (21.7)

126 (29.3)

[0.38–1.17]

0.16

 Tap water

350 (68.2)

58 (69.9)

292 (67.9)

0.91 [0.55–1.52]

0.72

 Lake or pond water

163 (31.8)

25 (30.1)

138 (32.1)

 Modern flush toilet

250 (48.7)

35 (42.2)

215 (50.0)

1.37 [0.85–2.21]

0.19

 Pit latrine

263 (51.3)

48 (57.8)

215 (50.0)

 Herbal medications use

187 (36.5)

45 (54.2)

142 (33.0)

2.40 [1.50–3.87]

< 0.001

2.11 [1.23–3.61]

0.007

 Gentamycin use

47 (9.2)

7 (8.4)

40 (9.3)

0.90 [0.34–2.08]

0.80

 Ceftriaxone use

51 (9.9)

8 (9.6)

43 (10.0)

0.96 [0.43–2.12]

0.92

 NSAID use

81 (15.8)

10 (12.1)

71 (16.5)

0.69 [0.34–1.41]

0.31

 Throat/skin infection

36 (7.0)

11 (13.3)

25 (5.8)

2.48 [1.17–5.25]

0.018

2.74 [1.14–6.56]

0.024

 History of SCD

71 (13.8)

21 (25.3)

50 (11.6)

2.5 [1.44–4.58]

0.001

2.59 [1.31–5.10]

0.006

 Family history of SCD

40 (7.8)

6 (7.2)

34 (7.9)

0.91 [0.37–2.24]

0.83

 Prior surgeries

28 (5.5)

1 (1.2)

27 (6.3)

0.18 [0.02–1.36]

0.10

 Hematuria

28 (5.5)

4 (4.8)

24 (5.6)

0.86 [0.29–2.54]

0.78

 Fever

373 (72.7)

59 (71.1)

314 (73.0)

0.91 [0.54–1.53]

0.72

 Dysuria

63 (12.3)

12 (14.5)

51 (11.9)

1.26 [0.64–2.48]

0.51

 Rash

28 (5.5)

6 (7.2)

22 (5.1)

1.45 [0.57–3.68]

0.44

 Diarrhea

112 (21.8)

23 (27.7)

89 (20.7)

1.47 [0.86–2.51]

0.16

 Bloody diarrhea

24 (4.7)

7 (8.4)

17 (4.0)

2.24 [0.90–5.58]

0.08

 Vomiting

176 (34.3)

27 (32.5)

149 (34.7)

0.91 [0.55–1.50]

0.71

 Recurrent UTI

45 (8.8)

5 (6.0)

40 (9.3)

0.63 [0.24–1.63]

0.34

  Normal

458 (89.3)

66 (79.5)

392 (91.2)

RG

RG

  Increased

15 (2.9)

2 (2.4)

13 (3.0)

0.91 [0.20–4.14]

0.91

  Decreased

40 (7.8)

15 (18.1)

25 (5.8)

3.56 [1.79–7.11]

< 0.001

1.11 [0.60–2.06]

0.73

 Pallor

212 (41.3)

32 (38.6)

180 (41.9)

0.87 [0.54–1.41]

0.58

0.001 0.62

 Dehydration

65 (12.7)

21 (25.3)

44 (10.2)

2.97 [1.66–5.33]

< 0.001

3.12 [1.56–6.26]

 Edema

59 (11.5)

15 (18.1)

44 (10.2)

1.94 [1.02–3.67]

0.04

1.21 [0.56–2.62]

 Pediatric GCS

15 [15–15]

15 [15–15]

15 [15–15]

0.83 [0.69–0.10]

0.05

 Saturation

97 (95–98)

97 [94–98]

97 [95–98]

0.97 [0.93–1.01]

0.09

 Temperature

37 [36.6–38]

36.5 [36.2–36.8]

37 [36.6–38]

0.92 [0.72–1.16]

0.47

 Respiratory rate

30 [23–40]

30 [24–40]

30 [22–38]

1.01 [0.10–1.03]

0.08

 Pulse rate

112 [98–128]

110 [98–128]

112 [98–130]

0.10 [0.99–1.01]

0.38

  SBP

90 [85–100]

90 [85–102]

90 [85–100]

1.01 [0.99–1.03]

0.27

  DBP

60 [58–67]

60 [60–70]

60 [58–66]

1.01 [0.99–1.04]

0.29

HIV positivity

30 (5.8)

5 (6.0)

25 (5.8)

1.04 [0.38–2.79]

0.94

Positive BS for MPS

59 (11.5)

16 (19.3)

43 (10.0)

2.15 [1.14–4.03]

0.017

2.67 [1.26–5.66]

0.01

 Negative

417 (81.3)

46 (55.4)

371 (86.3)

RG

RG

 Positive

96 (18.7)

37 (44.6)

59 (13.7)

5.06 [3.03–8.45]

< 0.001

5.28 [2.97–9.39]

< 0.001

 Negative

493 (96.1)

77 (92.8)

416 (96.7)

RG

RG

 Positive

20 (3.9)

6 (7.2)

14 (3.3)

2.32 [0.86–6.21]

0.10

 Negative

344 (67.1)

47 (56.6)

297 (69.1)

RG

RG

 Positive

169 (32.9)

36 (43.4)

133 (30.9)

1.71 [1.05–2.76]

0.028

1.19 [0.36–3.95]

0.77

 Negative

344 (67.1)

47 (56.6)

297 (69.1)

RG

RG

 Line faintly visible

83 (16.2)

19 (22.9)

64 (14.9)

1.88 [1.03–3.41]

0.039

1.31 [0.36–4.80]

0.68

 Line lighter than control

64 (12.5)

13 (15.7)

51 (11.9)

1.61 [0.81–3.41]

0.17

 Intensity equal to control

22 (4.2)

4 (4.8)

18 (4.2)

1.40 [0.46–4.33]

0.56

 Normal

268 (52.2)

47 (56.6)

221 (51.4)

RG

RG

 Mild malnutrition

95 (18.5)

12 (14.5)

83 (19.3)

0.68 [0.34–1.34]

0.23

 Moderate malnutrition

76 (14.8)

12 (14.5)

64 (14.9)

0.88 [0.44–1.76]

0.72

 Severe malnutrition

74 (14.5)

12 (14.5)

62 (14.4)

0.91 [0.45–1.82]

0.79