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Table 1 Basal and dietary characteristics according to quartiles of net endogenous acid production, by sex

From: Association of estimated dietary acid load with albuminuria in Japanese adults: a cross-sectional study

 

Quartile of net endogenous acid productiona, Men

P value for linear trend

Quartile of net endogenous acid production, Women

P value for linear trend

Q1 (< 34.2 mEq/day)

Q2 (34.2 to 43.3 mEq/day)

Q3 (43.4 to 53.3 mEq/day)

Q4 (≥53.4 mEq/day)

Q1 (< 27.7 mEq/day)

Q2 (27.7 to 34.9 mEq/day)

Q3 (35.0 to 43.5 mEq/day)

Q4 (≥43.6 mEq/day)

N

813

812

812

813

 

858

859

859

858

 

PRALb, mEq/day

−18.7 (−27.5, −12.6)

−2.2 (−5.6, 0.8)

7.0 (4.6, 9.6)

17.7 (14.0, 23.5)

< 0.0001

−32.8 (−44.1, − 25.3)

−14.6 (− 18.6, −11.0)

−2.9 (−6.0, 0.1)

10.1 (6.1, 16.7)

< 0.0001

Age, years

70.1 ± 9.8

69.8 ± 10.0

68.6 ± 10.3

68.2 ± 10.8

< 0.0001

67.7 ± 8.8

68.6 ± 8.9

67.9 ± 9.8

68.8 ± 10.8

0.0613

Body mass index, kg/m2

22.9 ± 2.7

22.9 ± 2.9

22.8 ± 2.8

22.8 ± 2.9

0.2473

22.2 ± 3.1

22.6 ± 3.1

22.4 ± 3.3

22.5 ± 3.4

0.1091

Total physical Activityc, MET-hour/day

42.0 (37.2, 49.0)

41.3 (36.8, 47.8)

40.8 (36.8, 48.3)

41.3 (36.1, 48.3)

0.0894d

39.9 (36.9, 45.2)

39.0 (36.1, 43.8)

38.6 (36.0, 43.2)

38.3 (35.4, 43.5)

< 0.0001d

Smoking status

    

< 0.0001

    

0.4917

 Never-smoker

194 (23.9)

175 (21.6)

178 (21.9)

152 (18.7)

 

750 (87.4)

768 (89.4)

755 (87.9)

743 (86.6)

 

 Past smoker

458 (56.3)

476 (58.6)

425 (52.3)

428 (52.6)

 

60 (7.0)

69 (8.0)

67 (7.8)

69 (8.0)

 

 Current smoker

161 (19.8)

161 (19.8)

209 (25.7)

233 (28.7)

 

48 (5.6)

22 (2.6)

37 (4.3)

46 (5.4)

 

Alcohol consumption, g ethanol/week

    

< 0.0001

    

0.5289

 None or rarely

221 (27.2)

178 (21.9)

180 (22.2)

194 (23.9)

 

566 (66.0)

551 (64.1)

573 (66.7)

595 (69.4)

 

 1–149

223 (27.4)

226 (27.8)

196 (24.1)

180 (22.1)

 

240 (28.0)

252 (29.3)

223 (26.0)

208 (24.2)

 

 150–299

168 (20.7)

192 (23.7)

191 (23.5)

170 (20.9)

 

34 (4.0)

36 (4.2)

40 (4.7)

31 (3.6)

 

 300–449

115 (14.2)

129 (15.9)

122 (15.0)

128 (15.7)

 

13 (1.5)

12 (1.4)

15 (1.8)

15 (1.8)

 

 450-

86 (10.6)

87 (10.7)

123 (15.2)

141 (17.3)

 

5 (0.6)

8 (0.9)

8 (0.9)

9 (1.1)

 

eGFR, ml/min/1.73 m2

73.8 ± 15.3

74.3 ± 15.4

74.5 ± 16.1

75.1 ± 16.2

0.1098

74.3 ± 15.1

74.6 ± 14.4

74.6 ± 15.2

75.2 ± 16.2

0.2309

Urine albumin creatinine ratio, mg/mmol

1.02 (0.57, 2.37)

1.13 (0.57, 2.43)

1.02 (0.57, 2.37)

1.13 (0.68, 2.94)

0.0301d

1.36 (0.79, 2.49)

1.47 (0.79, 2.71)

1.47 (0.83, 3.05)

1.58 (0.90, 3.16)

< 0.0001d

Systolic blood pressure, mmHg

130.7 ± 18.2

131.5 ± 18.0

130.0 ± 17.7

131.6 ± 18.1

0.7031

127.6 ± 17.8

129.1 ± 18.2

128.4 ± 17.3

128.9 ± 18.3

0.2208

Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg

76.2 ± 11.2

76.0 ± 10.8

76.6 ± 10.8

77.4 ± 10.7

0.0147

73.1 ± 10.8

73.4 ± 10.6

73.6 ± 10.3

72.9 ± 10.7

0.8475

Pulse pressure, mmHg

54.5 ± 13.6

55.5 ± 13.4

53.4 ± 13.7

54.1 ± 13.8

0.1494

54.5 ± 12.9

55.7 ± 13.6

54.9 ± 13.1

56.0 ± 13.7

0.0723

Hypertension

444 (54.6)

479 (59.0)

456 (56.2)

473 (58.2)

0.3108

371 (43.2)

391 (45.5)

394 (45.9)

415 (48.4)

0.0387

Diabetes mellitus

79 (9.7)

69 (8.5)

69 (8.5)

74 (9.1)

0.6803

38 (4.4)

34 (4.0)

39 (4.5)

36 (4.2)

0.9699

Nutritientse

 Energy, kcal/day

2001.3 (1605.5, 2505.7)

2069.6 (1661.7, 2564.4)

2089.1 (1703.3, 2591.0)

2032.7 (1569.6, 2680.4)

0.0809d

1750.7 (1378.1, 2230.2)

1818.2 (1457.0, 2252.3)

1826.0 (1466.1, 2307.9)

1772.7 (1389.0, 2422.2)

0.0490d

 Protein, g/day

68.4 ± 14.1

70.9 ± 14.9

70.9 ± 14.4

71.6 ± 19.5

0.0001

67.5 ± 11.5

72.3 ± 11.5

74.9 ± 11.7

77.5 ± 16.3

< 0.0001

  Animal protein, g/day

26.4 (18.8, 35.2)

32.0 (22.8, 41.3)

33.8 (25.1, 44)

37.0 (24.4, 50.3)

< 0.0001d

27.2 (20.0, 34.8)

34.1 (27.3, 41.6)

38.9 (31.3, 47.3)

43.5 (33.1, 55.5)

< 0.0001d

  Plant protein, g/day

40.3 ± 7.9

37.1 ± 8.1

35.3 ± 7.9

32.1 ± 8.7

<  0.0001

38.8 ± 7.1

36.5 ± 7.4

35.1 ± 8.7

32.2 ± 9.1

<  0.0001

 Fat, g/day

53.3 ± 19.2

54.3 ± 18.5

54.0 ± 17.5

54.3 ± 22.8

0.3476

57.7 ± 15.8

60.0 ± 14.5

62.5 ± 15.2

64.7 ± 19.3

< 0.0001

 Carbohydrate, g/day

309.5 ± 50.2

295.2 ± 48.4

289.3 ± 50.0

276.7 ± 62.4

< 0.0001

287.6 ± 37.8

272.3 ± 35.1

259.9 ± 37.2

246.6 ± 48.9

< 0.0001

 Potassium, mg/day

3904.8 ± 956.1

3074.0 ± 666.9

2599.2 ± 542.4

2039.1 ± 616.5

< 0.0001

4539.0 ± 949.9

3697.8 ± 598.7

3238.4 ± 522.7

2591.3 ± 636.8

< 0.0001

 Calcium, mg/day

617.7 (482.4, 792.5)

538.3 (415.8, 694.1)

469.5 (362.0, 619.4)

355.0 (251.2, 484.5)

< 0.0001d

706.8 (576.2, 885.2)

665.1 (539.9, 829.9)

626.0 (488.2, 788)

493.3 (374.6, 672.4)

< 0.0001d

 Magnesium, mg/day

404.4 ± 99.3

338.0 ± 68.8

296.8 ± 59.2

248.4 ± 59.5

< 0.0001

426.1 ± 94.1

367.1 ± 63.6

333.9 ± 59.2

278.5 ± 58.0

< 0.0001

 Phosphorus, mg/day

1192.4 ± 274.8

1169.6 ± 295.0

1107.3 ± 251.1

1042.7 ± 283.9

< 0.0001

1211.0 ± 242.4

1217.7 ± 241.7

1210.4 ± 246.1

1150.1 ± 265.8

< 0.0001

 Salt, g/day

13.4 (10.3, 17.3)

11.5 (9.3, 14.1)

10.9 (8.7, 13.2)

9.8 (7.6, 12.2)

< 0.0001d

14 (11.2, 17.5)

12.3 (9.9, 14.9)

11.0 (9.0, 13.5)

10.7 (8.7, 12.9)

< 0.0001d

Food groupse

 Fish, g/day

44.1 (24.2, 69.9)

55.1 (31.6, 83.7)

58.3 (33.4, 92.2)

56.5 (28.0, 101.4)

< 0.0001d

47.1 (28.2, 72.3)

63.9 (38.8, 89.7)

69.6 (42.3, 103.8)

73.6 (39.8, 116.6)

< 0.0001d

 Meat, g/day

35.8 (18.6, 58.2)

46.8 (26.3, 73.6)

56.0 (30.0, 89.1)

67.0 (35.2, 115.4)

< 0.0001d

35.4 (20.5, 54.8)

46.8 (26.8, 71.9)

58.3 (35.6, 84.7)

77.6 (42.6, 121.3)

< 0.0001d

 Grain, g/day

577.6 ± 170.4

610.7 ± 163.0

640.0 ± 164.9

662.5 ± 200.2

< 0.0001

445.2 ± 134.5

483.2 ± 130.9

491.2 ± 132.8

521.4 ± 155.5

< 0.0001

 Legumes, g/day

61.2 (34.5, 103.6)

55.4 (32.7, 94.2)

51.1 (28.2, 81.6)

32.7 (15.2, 62.1)

< 0.0001d

61.3 (35.3, 105.8)

66.5 (42.5, 105.8)

67.3 (39.5, 107.1)

52.0 (27.0, 89.3)

< 0.0001d

 Egg, g/day

18.5 (7.9, 33.8)

21.4 (10.1, 38.0)

22.3 (10.2, 37.4)

23.4 (8.9, 47.1)

< 0.0001d

17.1 (7.8, 30.8)

22.2 (12.2, 37.0)

24.2 (12.9, 39.2)

41.0 ± 61.0

< 0.0001d

 Vegetables, g/day

410.9 (259.6, 601.6)

247.8 (170.7, 315.2)

184.1 (121.9, 249.7)

108.8 (60.4, 164.1)

< 0.0001d

558.1 (408.9, 759.6)

365.7 (274.9, 486.5)

277.1 (196.2, 361.9)

177.7 (115.5, 252.8)

< 0.0001d

 Fruits, g/day

197.4 (101.6, 323.1)

129.9 (67.2, 206.1)

95.8 (48.8, 157.6)

43.6 (13.1, 89.5)

< 0.0001d

314.1 (190.9, 469.7)

227.8 (145.7, 326.1)

166.8 (102.0, 247.9)

102.5 (47.0, 165.4)

< 0.0001d

  1. eGFR estimated glomerular filtration rate, MET-hour metabolic equivalent task hours, PRAL potential renal acid load
  2. Values are as mean ± SD, median (IQR), or number (%)
  3. aNet endogenous acid production (mEq/day) = 54.5 × (protein [g/day]/potassium [mEq/day])-10.2
  4. bPotential renal acid load (mEq/day) = 0.4888 × protein (g/day) + 0.0366 × phosphorus (mg/day)-0.0205 × potassium (mg/day)-0.0125 × calcium (mg/day)-0.0263 × magnesium (mg/day)
  5. cThe number of subjects to be analyzed for physical activity decreased by 5 subjects in men and 8 subjects in women due to missing values
  6. dLinear trends for total physical activity, urine albumin creatinine ratio, energy, animal protein, calcium, salt, fish, meat, legume, egg, vegetable, and fruit intake were calculated after conversion to logarithmic form
  7. eNutrients and food groups were adjusted for energy intake by the residual method