Table 1 Baseline clinical and biochemical characteristics stratified by PWV tertiles

Pulse wave velocity (m/s)

7.7 ± 2.1

5.6 ± 0.7

7.3 ± 0.5

10.0 ± 1.7

–

Index age (years)

57.7 ± 10.3

52.1 ± 10.7

57.0 ± 9.6

60.8 ± 8.6

< 0.001

Male sex (%)

51.7

51.7

50.3

53.2

0.66

Ethnicity (%)

0.30

 Chinese

53.7

53.5

52.0

55.5

 Malay

20.1

17.8

22.0

20.6

 Asian Indian

26.2

28.6

26.0

23.9

Diabetes duration (years)

10.9 ± 8.6

7.9 ± 6.9

10.9 ± 8.6

13.8 ± 9.1

< 0.001

CVD history (%)

6.8

5.2

8.1

7.1

0.19

Current smoker (%)

8.5

10.8

7.3

7.5

0.09

Body mass index (kg/m2)

27.7 ± 5.1

27.4 ± 5.0

27.8 ± 5.1

27.8 ± 5.1

0.28

Fasting glucose (mM)

8.1 ± 2.6

7.8 ± 2.5

8.1 ± 2.5

8.2 ± 2.6

0.06

HbA1c (%)

7.8 ± 1.3

7.5 ± 1.3

7.9 ± 1.3

7.9 ± 1.3

< 0.001

Resting Heart rate (bpm)

71 ± 11

70 ± 10

71 ± 11

71 ± 11

0.04

 Systolic pressure

139 ± 18

130 ± 15

139 ± 17

146 ± 18

< 0.001

 Diastolic pressure

79 ± 9

78 ± 9

79 ± 10

79 ± 9

0.05

 Mean Arterial Pressure

99 ± 10

96 ± 9

99 ± 11

101 ± 10

< 0.001

 HDL Cholesterol

1.30 ± 0.36

1.30 ± 0.35

1.29 ± 0.37

1.29 ± 0.36

0.93

 LDL Cholesterol

2.75 ± 0.81

2.83 ± 0.83

2.73 ± 0.83

2.67 ± 0.78

0.01

 Triacylglycerol (IQR)

1.38 (1.02–1.92)

1.34 (0.96–1.90)

1.40 (1.06–1.93)

1.42 (1.05–1.92)

0.09

Central PP (mmHg)

49 ± 16

42 ± 14

48 ± 15

55 ± 16

< 0.001

Central PP > 50 mmHg (%)

41.6

25.3

41.7

58.5

< 0.001

Augmentation index (%)

26 ± 11

24 ± 11

26 ± 11

28 ± 10

< 0.001

 eGFR (ml/min/1.73m²)

89 ± 24

97 ± 19

89 ± 23

80 ± 25

< 0.001

 ACR (μg/mg)

21 (6.0–85)

11 (4.0–36)

22 (7.0–81)

38 (11.0–237)

< 0.001

 Statin

81.0

78.4

79.1

85.4

0.01

 Insulin

26.6

18.2

25.1

36.5

< 0.001

 RAS blocker

59.4

43.4

63.3

71.2

< 0.001

 Calcium channel blocker

19.8

10.6

20.6

28.5

< 0.001

 Beta blocker

14.2

7.5

16.2

19.1

< 0.001

 Diuretics

12.8

4.8

12.3

21.4

< 0.001

 Hypertension on- treatment

84.4

81.1

83.7

87.3

0.07